As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). The heart rate slows . There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. THE INTERNAL STATE SCALE (ISS) Version 2 and the ChronoBook SCORING KEY AND SUMMARY Mark S. Bauer, MD . While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). a. Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. Following the initial rush, users experience 46 hours of going on the nod, alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one months time (Roth, 2007). The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). . This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. a - a mole that looks cancerous. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. Loss of appetite. Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. Theta wavesare even lower frequency (47 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. 3. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. . Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. As you have learned, drugs can act as agonists or antagonists of a given neurotransmitter system. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. As mentioned earlier, REM sleep is marked by rapid movements of the eyes. In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. It is typically consumed in pill form. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. Melatonin is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system (Hardeland et al., 2006). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. An important difference between mood disorders and normal mood fluctuation is: A) the particular medication used to treat the problem. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. . Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. Given that college students are notorious for suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini, 2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related issues on a regular basis. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. Often, we are not completely aware of our surroundings, even when we are fully awake. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). Given the average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25 years of our lives sleeping. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. . The internal state of an object is the set of all its attributes' values. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . For example, most people sleep during the night and are awake during the day. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? Some of these approaches, such as using a bright light as shown inFigure 4.4, have been shown to alleviate some of the problems experienced by individuals suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of rotating shift work. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. 23. While medical marijuana laws have been passed on a state-by-state basis, federal laws still classify this as an illicit substance, making conducting research on the potentially beneficial medicinal uses of marijuana problematic. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). LINK TO LEARNING: To learn more about some of the most commonly abused prescription and street drugs, check out the, LINK TO LEARNING: Feeling stressed? A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. That includes exercise and bright light from devices. Many college students struggle getting the recommended 79 hours of sleep each night. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. Rotating shift workrefers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. Diarrhea. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? As a result, many scientists have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more widespread study of the drugs effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009; Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007). It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Wakefulnessis characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. (credit: Laurie Avocado). We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping.
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